Корпорация и двадцатый век. История американского делового предпринимательства - Richard N. Langlois;
67. Stein (1988, pp. 272).
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68. The rapid improvement of cataract surgery—beginning about the time Snyder entered the hospital—must count as one of the most dramatic feats of technological change in the twentieth century. Cataract removal is ancient, but quite apart from its danger and long- recuperation time, removal left sufferers with no lens in the eye. Harold Ridley of the Moorfields Hospital in London had noticed that wounded aviators during the war tolerated fragments of windshield plastic in the eye. In 1949, he pioneered the implant of acrylic lenses to replace the clouded natural lenses. Despite determined opposition from the medical establishment, Ridley and other practitioners—whom Stanley Metcalfe and his collaborators call “hero surgeons”— improved surgical techniques and materials over decades of trial-and-error learning within the professional community, eventually aided by private firms in the 1970s and 1980s (Metcalfe, James and Mina 2005). Cataract surgery today is a quick outpatient procedure that typically improves the patient’s visual acuity.
69. Irwin (2019).
70. Van Dormael (1978, p. 95).
71. Boughton (2019).
72. Steil (2013, p. 3).
73. The unpublished paper that Currie and White coauthored in 1932 has been portrayed as
proto-Keynesian, but it was in fact an argument for the monetary causes of the Great Depres- sion (Laidler and Sandilands 2002). Of course, by 1937, White was a convinced Keynesian. The names of Currie and White (or, rather, their codenames) appear conspicuously in the Venona Project decrypts and opened Soviet files, and many scholars consider them, especially White, to have been Soviet spies. Boughton and Sandilands (2003) attempt to cast doubt on this by suggesting that the legitimate words and doings of two important New Dealers were simply being transmitted to Moscow by actual spies, whom they concede to have been numerous among the friends and underlings of Currie and White. Benn Steil (2013) unearthed a document in White’s handwriting that heaped praise on the Soviet economic system, finishing with the exclamation “And it works!” But in fact the entire postwar Keynesian mainstream was fulsome in its praise for the supposed efficiency of the Soviet system (McCloskey 2010, pp. 441–42).
74. Bordo (1993).
75. Keynes (1980, p. 17).
76. Eichengreen (2019).
77. Helleiner (1996, p. 58).
78. This is the title of the reissued e-book version. The original had the more sedate title The
Marshall Plan: The Launching of the Pax Americana (Mee 1984).
79. Cowen (1985); DeLong and Eichengreen (1993).
80. White (2012, pp. 321–35).
81. Steil (2018, pp. 361–62). The traditional account is that Erhard forced the decontrol of
prices on a reluctant Clay. A widely reprinted anecdote has Erhard telephoning Clay to request permission to lift price controls. “Professor Erhard, my advisors tell me that you are making a big mistake,” said Clay. “So my advisors also tell me,” Erhard replied. By contrast, Steil portrays Clay as imposing decontrol on a reluctant Erhard. The truth is probably that both favored de- regulation (White 2012, p. 231).
82. Morck and Nakamura (2005).
83. Miwa and Ramseyer (2002b, p. 172).
630 Notes to Chapter 8
84. Okazaki (1994).
85. Miwa and Ramseyer (2002a, p. 132).
86. Yamamura (1967).
87. Hamada and Kasuya (1993); Kosai (1988).
88. Minford (1993); White (2012, pp. 174–87). The Labour Party largely occupied the politi-
cal space once filled by the rapidly declining Liberal Party. In this period the Conservative Party had not (yet) allied itself with liberal economic ideas, and thus the occasional postwar Conser- vative governments did little to change the economic regime Labour had installed.
89. Yergin and Stanislaw (2002, p. 8).
90. Waller (2005, p. 111).
91. His law partner was future Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas. Now called Arnold &
Porter, the firm has become one of the largest in the world. In a kind of reverse-Brandeis, Arnold in private practice discovered a good corporation, Coca-Cola, which he extolled in academic lectures as a paragon of what the American corporation should be. Rather than hegemonically owning its own bottling plants, Coke operated though market contracts with independent bot- tlers in the countryside, thus creating “wealth in outlying communities.” Coke also “created wealth” with its competitor Pepsi, presumably by not competing too hard (Freyer 2009, p. 361).
92. Berge (1944).
93. Wells (2002, p. 99).
94. Wells (2002, p. 104). In the end, courts found against the government on this and related
prosecutions.
95. Graham (2001, pp. 292 and 325); Hounshell (1996).
96. Wilkins (1974, pp. 300–310).
97. “Before World War Two the typical international investor was a bondholder or banker
who lent money to foreign governments and corporations. In the Bretton Woods era the typical international investor was a corporation that built factories in foreign nations” (Frieden 2006, p. 293).
98. Jones (2005, p. 101).
99. “The Enemy of Abundance,” The New Republic, February 15, 1943, p. 197.
100. “Message to the Congress on the State of the Union and on the Budget for 1947,”
Harry S. Truman Library and Museum, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/public-papers /18/message-congress-state-union-and-budget-1947 (accessed August 9, 2022). As we saw, of course, the American private sector was at that moment
